Study procedures

Each participant attended four individual sessions, each lasting three hours, to explore the sensory and kinaesthetic qualities of the eight different types of clay. In each session, participants interacted with two clay types, spending one hour on each.

Sessions were conducted in a neutral, distraction-free environment to promote focused exploration. Participants engaged with each clay type in a non-directive manner, freely exploring its properties through pressing, kneading, shaping, and manipulation. During this period, the researcher recorded observational notes to document notable behavioural changes and any important verbal quotes. These notes served as reference points and reminders later during the analysis process, which helped in supporting and contextualising the data.

Following each clay interaction, participants spent 20 minutes completing the Kinaesthetic and Sensory Exploration Checklist and open-ended questions, providing qualitative insights into their emotional and creative reactions. Participants also named their clay creations and reflected on specific characteristics that influenced their engagement. Each session concluded with a brief discussion, allowing participants to share immediate thoughts and feedback.

Data analysis

In this grounded theory study, we adopted a constructivist approach to data analysis, in which data collection and interpretation unfolded through a continuous, reflexive, and iterative process (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021; Matthews, 2024). Guided by the principle that meaning is co-constructed between participants and researchers, our analysis was shaped not only by participant experiences but also by our evolving theoretical sensitivity and reflective engagement with the data. This approach enabled us to explore how the sensory and kinaesthetic qualities of eight distinct types of clay contributed to how participants experienced mind-body integration, and how such interactions might inform therapeutic and rehabilitative applications.

Our analytic process began with open coding of observational notes, structured checklists, and verbal reflections. We inductively identified descriptive and interpretive codes that captured sensory, kinaesthetic, and emotional responses. For example, “vigorous slashing”, “calming smoothness”, and “frustration with resistance” (Chun Tie et al., 2019). These initial codes informed our developing focus, prompting deeper engagement with both new and existing data.

We next employed axial coding to examine the relationships between codes and begin grouping them into broader conceptual categories. This phase involved clustering related codes into evolving constructs such as ‘engagement with resistance’, ‘sensory avoidance’, and ‘emotional regulation through kinaesthetic experience’. These categories were not fixed; rather, they were subject to continual revision as new insights emerged through ongoing comparison and reflection. For instance, participant remarks such as “this clay doesn’t move the way I want” and observations of tense, forceful manipulation of firm clay contributed to the evolving category ‘struggling for minimal results’. Conversely, comments like “smooth texture feels grounding” and repeated gliding motions were synthesised into the theme ‘calming tactile engagement’.

Throughout the analysis, we employed the constant comparative method, systematically comparing incidents within and across participants to identify both individual variations and broader patterns (Walker & Myrick, 2006). Differences in response to the same clay type, such as one participant engaging in forceful punching and another transitioning to slow, deliberate kneading, highlighted the dynamic interplay between sensory preferences and emotional states.

We also triangulated data sources to enrich interpretation and support analytic credibility (Ralph et al., 2015). Observational data, participant reflections, and checklist indicators were examined in tandem to validate interpretations. For example, the checklist item “avoidance of sensory input” was reinforced by verbal statements such as “too rough and uncomfortable”, while sustained kneading motions accompanied by comments like “this resistance is satisfying” were indicative of sensory-seeking behaviour.

To ensure reflexivity and transparency, we engaged in memo writing throughout all stages of analysis (Hussein et al., 2014). Memos captured evolving interpretations, analytic decisions, and reflections on potential researcher bias, thereby supporting both the conceptual development of themes and the integrity of the analytic process.

Finally, we implemented a series of strategies to enhance trustworthiness in line with established qualitative research standards. These included triangulation across multiple data types (Flick, 2018), member checking with participants to confirm the credibility of emergent findings (Birt et al., 2016), and the maintenance of a comprehensive audit trail documenting coding decisions, thematic development, and interpretive shifts (Nowell et al., 2017). We also engaged in peer debriefing to critically appraise interpretations and mitigate potential biases.

Findings

Kinaesthetic interactions with clay

The ways participants engaged with clay were far from uniform; they were active, negotiated, and deeply intertwined with their personal experiences. Different textures, levels of resistance, and plasticity influenced how participants approached the material, leading to diverse kinaesthetic responses that reflected their sensory and emotional needs.

Constructing control through repetitive kinaesthetic interactions

For some participants, repetitive pressing movements emerged as an important self-regulation strategy. Maria, for instance, demonstrated steady, intentional pressing while working with Porcelain, describing the experience as creating calmness: “Pressing the clay felt like releasing tension, it was like I was physically pushing stress out of my hands and into the material. The rhythm helped me focus, and I could feel a kind of control returning to me.” Her repetitive pressing movements formed a tactile and psychological loop, reinforcing a sense of predictability and agency in an otherwise fluid and malleable process.

Lucy found a different dynamic in her engagement with White Raku, alternating between pressing and dabbing actions. She described how the shifts in motion offered a way to explore the responsiveness of clay, balancing structure and spontaneity: “Pressing made the clay smooth, but dabbing brought back the bumps. I liked the way I could go back and forth; it felt like I was balancing control and creativity.” This suggests that tactile engagement can function as a metaphor for internal psychological balance, reflecting how individuals move between states of control and playfulness in their emotional lives.

Negotiating resistance and adaptation

While some participants sought predictability through repetition, others struggled with material resistance, which led to moments of frustration, recalibration, and adaptation. David’s experience with Buff Raku illustrated this dynamic: “I kept trying to wring it, but it felt so dry and tough. It just wouldn’t move the way I wanted. Eventually, I gave up and just pressed it instead; it was easier to manage.” His engagement was initially characterised by resistance, as he attempted to manipulate the material beyond its limits. However, when faced with difficulty, he adjusted his kinaesthetic style, demonstrating a shift from frustration to acceptance.

In contrast, Harriet embraced the resistance posed by Buff Raku, finding pleasure in the challenge of engaging with its gritty texture. She adopted a rhythmic dabbing technique, describing her experience as both playful and visually rewarding: “The more I dabbed, the more interesting the surface became. It was like making tiny craters or patterns. Watching them form was so satisfying; it felt like play, like being a kid again.”

Sensory exploration and emotional resonance

Sensory engagement significantly influenced participants’ experiences, with the texture, weight, colour, and scent of the clay eliciting emotional responses that evoked memories and generated feelings of comfort or discomfort.

The duality of texture: Grounding vs. overwhelming

Some participants gravitated towards smooth clays, such as Porcelain and Fine White Stoneware, which elicited calming responses. Maria described how the sensation of smoothness contributed to a sense of emotional grounding: “Every time I pressed the clay; it smoothed away my fears. It was like the texture held this calmness that transferred into me. I even closed my eyes at one point just to focus on the sensation.” For Maria, the smooth surface of the clay served as a mechanism for emotional containment, anchoring her attention and aiding mood regulation. Her assertion illustrates how haptic perception can facilitate emotional self-soothing and promote psychological stability.

Conversely, coarse clays like Black Mid Fire and Clay Toast triggered polarised reactions. Harriet enjoyed the sensory challenge of working with Black Mid Fire, describing it as tactilely stimulating and grounding: “It felt like sandpaper, but in a good way. It made me really focus on what I was doing, like I had to be present with the clay instead of just moving without thinking.” However, David had a very different reaction to the same material: “The roughness was abrasive; it felt like it was scratching my hands. It took away from the flow of the movement and made the experience frustrating.”

Colour and memory associations

For most of the participants, colour was more than an aesthetic feature, it was emotionally evocative. Maria, for example, associated Terracotta with positive childhood memories, describing her experience in deeply nostalgic terms: “The colour reminded me of summer days as a kid playing outside in the sun. It made me feel relaxed and joyful, like I was reconnecting with something simple and happy.” Lucy, on the other hand, hesitated before engaging with White Raku, citing a strong visual aversion: “It looked kind of gross, like it was wet or slimy. I wasn’t sure I wanted to touch it at first.” Her response underscores how visual impressions can pre-condition sensory expectations, shaping how individuals interact with and experience tactile materials.

The influence of scent on emotional responses

The scent of the clay, though less frequently commented on, had a powerful impact when it was noted. White Raku elicited strong negative reactions due to its pungent odour. David found the smell particularly unpleasant, describing it as “poisonous” and reminiscent of chemicals: “It reminded me of being stuck inside doing chores while my friends were outside playing. I didn’t want to be reminded of that.” For David, the unpleasant scent overwhelmed his experience, making it difficult to focus on the tactile engagement.

The association with negative childhood memories meant that, regardless of how the clay felt, the scent dictated his overall perception of the material. By contrast, Harriet found the earthy scent of Black Mid Fire to be deeply comforting and nostalgic, linking it to positive memories: “The smell took me back to the farm, where I used to relax during inquiry breaks at university. It was comforting and made me feel at ease.”

Discussion

This preliminary study helped to provide new insights into how the kinaesthetic and sensory properties of clay contribute to therapeutic engagement and outcomes. The findings indicate that specific tactile and physical properties of clay, including its resistance, elasticity, and responsiveness to pressure, significantly influence participant experiences by promoting neuromotor engagement, self-regulation, and embodied awareness.

A key finding in this study was the differential therapeutic responses elicited by various types of clay, depending on their material properties. Firmer clays, such as Buff Raku, were particularly effective in providing strong proprioceptive feedback and resistance. In the current study, firmer clays appeared to encourage active motor engagement, suggesting their relevance for neuromotor re-education and proprioceptive training. Participants who engaged with these clays reported greater physical involvement, which may have contributed to improved hand strength, coordination, and grip stability, key components in neuromuscular rehabilitation (Bae & Kim, 2018; Frikha & Alharbi, 2023; Gesgin Yasici et al., 2024).

In contrast, softer and more pliable clays, such as Fine Porcelain, facilitated a fluid and meditative experience, which seemed to support emotional containment and fine motor refinement. These clays allowed participants to focus on detailed shaping tasks without excessive physical effort, offering therapeutic potential for individuals in the later stages of motor rehabilitation. The pliable texture of these clays helped reduce physical tension and stress, creating a calm and mindful state that may have enhanced overall engagement.

The sensory properties of clay also emerged as a central element in therapeutic engagement, offering participants opportunities for sensory modulation and emotional regulation. Participants described how manipulating clay with varying levels of resistance and texture helped regulate sensory input and induced a state of embodied mindfulness. This finding supports previous work by Elbrecht and Antcliff (2014), who emphasised the importance of kinaesthetic engagement in recalibrating sensory thresholds for individuals with sensory processing difficulties.

Different clays provided distinct sensory experiences that could be matched to individual client needs. For example, coarse-textured clays like Clay Toast heightened tactile stimulation, potentially serving as a useful tool for clients requiring sensory reawakening or grounding through contrasting sensations. In contrast, smoother clays like White Stoneware offered a more balanced sensory experience, combining moderate resistance with a tactilely pleasing surface that encouraged exploratory engagement without being overwhelming.

The capacity of clay to facilitate emotional expression and regulation was also notable. Participants described how resistance within the material provided a means to externalise tension while fostering a sense of control and agency. This finding is consistent with Kimport and Robbins (2012) who observed that tactile exploration with clay promotes sensory grounding and emotional balance. It also follows Sholt and Gavron’s (2006) concept of clay having regressive and reconstructive potential, where shaping, destroying, and remoulding the material symbolises psychological transformation.

Implications for therapeutic practice

The embodied and sensory engagement with clay highlights how tactile interaction can serve as a therapeutic tool for emotional regulation, self-reflection, and corporeal exploration. The diversity in participants’ responses underscores the importance of offering personalised, adaptive approaches that align with individual sensory preferences and emotional needs. For instance, repetitive pressing motions may promote emotional grounding and a sense of control for individuals experiencing anxiety or emotional dysregulation, while engaging with more resistant and gritty materials may encourage sensory exploration, recalibration, and resilience in the face of frustration.

The contrasting reactions to sensory experiences, such as texture and scent, also suggest that practitioners must remain attuned to how these elements might evoke both positive and negative emotional responses. Providing a variety of materials and allowing individuals to choose based on their preferences could foster greater agency and enhance the therapeutic experience. Additionally, the use of metaphor in kinaesthetic interactions, for example, the balance between control and spontaneity can facilitate deeper self-awareness and psychological insight. Practitioners might explore how these kinaesthetic patterns and tactile metaphors can be integrated into broader therapeutic goals, such as improving emotional flexibility, fostering creative problem-solving, and enhancing sensory integration.

Future research

The findings of this study provide a foundation for developing clay-based interventions that are responsive to individual therapeutic needs, highlighting the potential for personalised and context-sensitive approaches. Future research could explore how specific material properties, such as texture, temperature, moisture, and resistance shape therapeutic engagement and outcomes across varied populations. Mixed-methods studies combining phenomenological interviews, observational analysis, and arts-based inquiry could yield deeper insight into how sensory and kinaesthetic interactions with clay support recovery in areas such as neuromotor rehabilitation, emotional regulation, and sensory integration. Comparative case studies and longitudinal designs situated in real-world clinical and community-based settings may also clarify how clay engagement contributes to sustained therapeutic change and informs the development of adaptable practice frameworks.

Applied clinical studies will be crucial in translating these findings into practice. Future efforts might focus on developing and evaluating structured clay-based protocols within multidisciplinary rehabilitation settings. For instance, examining how art, occupational, and physical therapists can work collaboratively to integrate clay into treatment plans could help address varied therapeutic goals, such as improving motor coordination, fostering emotional resilience, and enhancing sensory processing.

Innovative, interdisciplinary approaches could further refine best practices, ensuring interventions are both evidence-based and adaptable to individual needs. Future research might also explore how clay therapy could be adapted across diverse clinical environments, including outpatient rehabilitation centres, trauma recovery programs, and pediatric or geriatric care.

Limitations

This study aimed to capture the complexity of sensory and kinaesthetic based clay interactions and their therapeutic significance. While this approach provided rich qualitative insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the small sample size, comprising four participants, each engaged in four sessions of approximately three hours, was an intentional design choice to allow for an in-depth exploration of individual experiences. Although this provided detailed data on the nuanced interactions between participants and clay, it limits the broader applicability of the findings. Expanding future studies to include a larger and more diverse sample would enhance the generalisability of results. However, such an expansion may require shorter session durations, more structured protocols, or a focus on specific rehabilitation populations.

Finally, this study may not fully capture the experiences of diverse clinical and cultural populations, particularly individuals with severe cognitive or physical impairments who may engage with clay in different ways due to their backgrounds. Future studies could adopt a participatory research approach, with co-designing of interventions by clients and practitioners to ensure that the methods are accessible and responsive to a broader range of needs. Such an approach would provide a more inclusive perspective, enhancing the relevance of clay-based therapeutic interventions for various rehabilitation contexts.

Conclusion

This study offers an important contribution to the expanding body of research on clay therapy by providing a detailed exploration of how sensory and kinaesthetic engagement with clay may support emotional regulation and rehabilitation outcomes. Moving beyond prior research that has primarily emphasised psychological benefits, this study highlights the role of specific physical properties, such as texture, resistance, and responsiveness in shaping embodied therapeutic experiences. The findings suggest that carefully tailoring clay interventions to individual sensory preferences and therapeutic needs could enhance therapeutic engagement, offering a more integrative approach to physical and emotional recovery.

A key insight from this study is the potential value of selecting different types of clay to align with specific therapeutic goals. Firmer clays appeared to promote proprioceptive feedback and active neuromotor engagement, making them potentially beneficial for neuromuscular training and motor skill development. Meanwhile, softer, more pliable clays fostered experiences associated with relaxation, emotional containment, and mindfulness, which may support self-regulation and emotional processing.

Looking ahead, while this study provides early insights, it also underscores the complexity of using clay as a therapeutic medium. Continued efforts to better understand how sensory and kinaesthetic interactions with clay will enrich clinical practice and help practitioners offer more nuanced and responsive care.